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2.4. Structural Systems for Architecture (STR)
Structural Systems for Architecture provides the essential knowledge of structural behavior, material properties, and load transfer mechanisms required to design safe, efficient, and expressive buildings. It spans from fundamental mechanics to advanced topics such as long-span structures, seismic design, and AI-assisted optimization. Students learn to collaborate effectively with structural engineers and to integrate structural logic as a generative driver of architectural form.
2.4.1. STR/Structural Principles and Mechanics (Core Tier1: 1 hr, Core Tier2: 1 hr) ↑ Back to top
Covers the fundamental principles of structural mechanics: equilibrium, load paths, internal forces (tension, compression, shear, bending, torsion), and the behavior of structural materials under load.
Topics:
Core
- Types of loads: dead, live, snow, wind, seismic, and thermal; load combinations per ASCE 7; internal force diagrams (axial, shear, moment) in statically determinate beams
- Stress-strain relationships for common structural materials: elastic and plastic behavior, yield strength, ultimate strength, modulus of elasticity, and ductility
- Static equilibrium equations (\(\sum F_x = 0\), \(\sum F_y = 0\), \(\sum M = 0\)) and calculation of support reactions in beams, trusses, and simple frames
- Truss analysis: method of joints, method of sections, zero-force members, and truss configurations (howe, pratt, warren, vierendeel) for different span conditions
- Beam deflection: moment-area method, superposition, and the role of deflection limits (L/360, L/240) in serviceability design
Learning Outcomes:
Core:
- Describe the primary types of structural loads and internal forces, and explain how they influence the sizing and configuration of structural elements [Familiarity]
- Calculate support reactions, shear and moment diagrams, and deflection in simple statically determinate beams and trusses [Usage]
- Evaluate the structural adequacy of a simple beam or truss configuration against given load and deflection criteria, proposing cross-section or material changes where needed [Assessment]
2.4.2. STR/Vertical Load Path and Foundations (Core Tier1: 1 hr, Core Tier2: 1 hr) ↑ Back to top
Covers the vertical gravity load path from structural elements to the foundation: column and wall behavior, foundation systems, and structural grid coordination.
Topics:
Core
- Vertical load-bearing systems: short vs. slender columns, buckling (Euler), effective length factor; load-bearing walls (masonry, concrete, timber, steel studs)
- Foundation systems and load transfer: spread footings, continuous footings, pile caps, grade beams, and the role of connections in ensuring load path continuity
- Structural grid design: bay sizes, column spacing implications for floor framing (one-way vs. two-way slabs, beam-and-girder, flat plate, flat slab),
Learning Outcomes:
Core:
- Identify the primary vertical load-bearing elements and foundation systems in a building, and describe how loads are transferred from the structural grid to the foundation [Familiarity]
- Select and configure an appropriate column/wall system, foundation type, and structural grid for a medium-rise building, considering program and material availability [Usage]
- Evaluate a building's vertical load path for continuity and foundation adequacy, identifying potential load-transfer discontinuities [Assessment]
2.4.3. STR/Residential and Vernacular Structural Systems (Core Tier1: 1 hr, Core Tier2: 1 hr) ↑ Back to top
Covers the structural systems most commonly used in single-family and low-rise residential construction, from engineered confined masonry to vernacular timber and reinforced earthen construction.
Topics:
Core
- Confined masonry (albañilería confinada): masonry walls confined by cast-in-place reinforced-concrete tie-columns and tie-beams, its seismic behavior and failure modes, and its role as Peru's dominant residential construction system under RNE Norma E.070
- Timber structural systems: heavy-timber post-and-beam framing, light wood framing (platform framing), mass timber (CLT, glulam), and the connections that distinguish each system's load path and seismic behavior
- Reinforced and improved adobe (adobe mejorado): seismic retrofitting of earthen walls with geogrid/geomesh, cane (caña), or wire mesh reinforcement to mitigate the brittle failure of plain adobe, per Peru's RNE Norma E.080
Learning Outcomes:
Core:
- Identify confined masonry, timber, and reinforced earthen construction as structural systems, and describe their seismic behavior, failure modes, and appropriate use contexts [Familiarity]
- Select and detail an appropriate residential structural system - confined masonry, timber framing, or reinforced adobe - for a single-family house, considering material availability, cost, and seismic performance [Usage]
- Evaluate a single-family house's structural system for seismic adequacy and constructability, identifying code-compliance gaps under RNE Norma E.070 or E.080 as applicable [Assessment]
2.4.4. STR/Lateral Load-Resisting Systems (Core Tier1: 1 hr, Core Tier2: 1 hr) ↑ Back to top
Covers the structural systems that resist lateral (wind and seismic) loads in mid-rise buildings: moment and braced frames, shear walls, and the diaphragms that transfer lateral loads to them.
Topics:
Core
- Horizontal load-resisting systems: moment-resisting frames (rigid connections), braced frames (concentric, eccentric), shear walls (concrete, plywood, CLT),
- Floor and roof diaphragms: rigid vs. flexible diaphragm behavior, chord forces, collector elements, and load transfer from diaphragms to vertical lateral-resisting elements
Learning Outcomes:
Core:
- Identify the primary lateral load-resisting systems - moment frames, braced frames, shear walls - and describe the role of floor and roof diaphragms in transferring lateral loads to them [Familiarity]
- Select and configure an appropriate lateral load-resisting system - moment frame, braced frame, or shear wall - for a mid-rise collective-housing building, coordinating it with the floor diaphragm [Usage]
- Evaluate a mid-rise building's lateral system for configuration irregularities (soft stories, torsional irregularities) and diaphragm continuity [Assessment]
2.4.5. STR/Long-Span and Special Structures (Core Tier1: 1 hr, Core Tier2: 1 hr) ↑ Back to top
Covers structural systems for large clear spans: arches, vaults, domes, space frames, trusses, cable nets, tensile membranes, and folded plates.
Topics:
Core
- Arches and vaults: funicular compression geometry, buttressing requirements, ribbed vs. continuous vaults, and historic and contemporary applications (Guastavino, Candela)
- Domes and shells: membrane theory, edge ring forces, buckling in thin shells, geodesic domes (Fuller), and reinforced concrete shells (Nervi, Isler)
- Space frames and long-span trusses: three-dimensional truss action, node design, modular systems (Mero, Unistrut), and application in arenas, airports, and exhibition halls
- Tensile and cable structures: cable nets (Frei Otto), fabric membranes (PTFE-coated fiberglass, ETFE), masts and anchorage design, and form-finding via physical
- Folded plate structures: corrugated geometry for stiffness, folded plate concrete roofs, and timber folded plate systems (CLT folded plates)
Non Core
- Deployable and transformable structures: scissor linkages, pantographic systems, and their application in retractable roofs, emergency shelters, and kinetic architecture
Learning Outcomes:
Core:
- Describe the principal long-span structural systems - arches, domes, space frames, tensile membranes - and identify the appropriate span range [Familiarity]
- Select and conceptualize a long-span structural system for a given program (e.g., stadium, airport terminal, convention center), justifying the choice by span, load, [Usage]
- Evaluate the structural efficiency and architectural expression of a built long-span structure, analyzing its load path, stability, and integration of form with structural logic [Assessment]
2.4.6. STR/Structural Morphology and Form-Finding (Core Tier1: 1 hr, Core Tier2: 1 hr) ↑ Back to top
Covers the relationship between structural form and internal force flow: funicular geometry, graphic statics, physical form-finding, and computational optimization for material efficiency.
Topics:
Core
- Funicular forms: compression-only (arches, vaults) and tension-only (cables) geometries; the relationship between shape and internal forces; thrust line analysis for arches
- Graphic statics: form diagram, force diagram, and their reciprocal relationship for funicular design; application to trusses and masonry vault analysis
- Physical form-finding: hanging-chain models (Gaudi), soap-film analogues, and fabric formwork; scaling laws and materiality in physical models for compression
- Computational form-finding: dynamic relaxation, particle-spring systems, and finite element-based shape optimization for minimal surface and funicular geometries
Non Core
- Topology optimization for structural layout: SIMP method, solid-void distribution, and generation of bone-like material-efficient structural morphologies for additive manufacturing
Learning Outcomes:
Core:
- Describe the concept of funicular form and explain how the shape of a structure can be derived from its internal force flow using graphic statics or physical form-finding [Familiarity]
- Apply graphic statics or computational form-finding to design a compression-only or tension-only structure that is in pure axial equilibrium for a given load [Usage]
- Evaluate a form-found structure for material efficiency and structural integrity, comparing its performance to a conventionally designed counterpart [Assessment]
2.4.7. STR/Computational Structural Analysis (Core Tier1: 1 hr, Core Tier2: 1 hr) ↑ Back to top
Covers the use of computational tools for structural analysis: finite element methods, BIM-integrated analysis workflows, and parametric structural modeling for iterative design exploration.
Topics:
Core
- Finite element method basics: discretization, element types (beam, shell, solid), boundary conditions, load application, and interpretation of stress, displacement,
- Parametric structural modeling: linking geometric parameters (span, spacing, depth) to analysis results via Grasshopper-Karamba or Dynamo- Robot
- BIM-based structural workflows: structural analysis model from architectural BIM (Revit, Tekla), data exchange via IFC or CIS/2, from the structural-analysis side. See also: BIM for Structural and MEP Coordination
- Stability analysis: eigenvalue buckling analysis for slender structures, geometrically nonlinear analysis for cable nets and membranes, and second-order effects (P-\(\Delta\))
Non Core
- Nonlinear material analysis: plasticity, cracking in concrete, post-yield behavior of steel, and performance-based design using pushover analysis (nonlinear static)
Learning Outcomes:
Core:
- Describe the steps of a finite element structural analysis workflow and the role of mesh refinement, boundary conditions, and material properties in result accuracy [Familiarity]
- Set up a parametric structural model to analyze the stress and deflection of a beam or frame under varying geometric parameters [Usage]
- Evaluate the results of a computational structural analysis for plausibility and convergence, identifying modeling errors or unrealistic assumptions in loads or supports [Assessment]
2.4.8. STR/Foundation and Geotechnical Considerations (Core Tier1: 1 hr, Core Tier2: 1 hr) ↑ Back to top
Covers the interaction between buildings and the ground: soil properties, bearing capacity, settlement, foundation types, and retaining structures.
Topics:
Core
- Soil properties and site investigation: grain size distribution, Atterberg limits, shear strength (cohesion, friction angle), compressibility,
- Bearing capacity and settlement: Terzaghi's bearing capacity equation, allowable bearing pressure, immediate and consolidation settlement,
- Shallow foundations: spread footings, continuous footings, mat (raft) foundations; sizing for column loads and uplift, reinforcement detailing, and frost protection
- Deep foundations: driven piles (steel, concrete, timber), drilled shafts (caissons), pile capacity (end-bearing + skin friction), pile groups, and negative skin friction
- Retaining walls: gravity, cantilever, sheet pile, and anchored walls; active and passive earth pressure (Rankine, Coulomb); drainage and stability against sliding and overturning
Learning Outcomes:
Core:
- Identify the key soil properties that influence foundation design and describe the difference between shallow and deep foundation systems and their appropriate applications [Familiarity]
- Size a shallow foundation (spread footing) for given column loads and soil bearing capacity, verifying settlement and reinforcing requirements against code limits [Usage]
- Evaluate a foundation design proposal for stability, settlement, and constructability, recommending changes where geotechnical risks are inadequately addressed [Assessment]
2.4.9. STR/Seismic Design for Architecture (Core Tier1: 1 hr, Core Tier2: 1 hr) ↑ Back to top
Covers seismic design principles for buildings: seismic hazards, response spectra, lateral force-resisting systems, ductility, and the architectural detailing required for earthquake resilience.
Topics:
Core
- Seismic hazards and site effects: fault rupture, ground shaking, liquefaction, landslide; site class effects on ground motion amplification
- Lateral force-resisting systems for seismic resistance: moment frames, braced frames (concentric, eccentric), shear walls (reinforced concrete, wood), and dual systems
- Ductility and capacity design: strong-column weak-beam, plastic hinge formation, confinement reinforcement in concrete columns,
- Architectural integration of seismic systems: drift limits for cladding and partitions, seismic joints, diaphragm continuity,
- Base isolation and energy dissipation: elastomeric and sliding bearings, tuned mass dampers, viscous dampers, and their impact on architectural detailing
Non Core
- Performance-based seismic design (PBSD): performance objectives (immediate occupancy, life safety, collapse prevention), nonlinear static pushover analysis,
Learning Outcomes:
Core:
- Describe the primary seismic force-resisting systems and explain how building codes classify seismic risk and prescribe detailing for ductile behavior [Familiarity]
- Apply seismic design principles to the early-stage design of a building, selecting an appropriate lateral system and configuring plan [Usage]
- Evaluate an architectural design for seismic vulnerability, identifying plan irregularities (re-entrant corners, diaphragm discontinuities) [Assessment]
2.4.10. STR/AI-Assisted Structural Optimization ↑ Back to top
Covers the application of machine learning and artificial intelligence to structural design: surrogate modeling, generative design, reinforcement learning for layout, and AI-assisted code compliance checking.
Topics:
Non Core
- Surrogate modeling for structural analysis: training neural networks to predict stress, deflection, or buckling load as fast approximations of finite element simulations for use
- Generative design for structural layout: using evolutionary algorithms and GANs to produce diverse structural configurations (column grids
- Reinforcement learning for structural topology: training RL agents to add or remove material in a design domain to achieve minimum compliance or weight, producing efficient
- AI-assisted code compliance checking for structures: NLP for parsing seismic and wind provisions, automated rule checking of structural BIM models against IBC. See also: AI-Assisted BIM Automation
- Machine learning for failure mode prediction: training classifiers to identify potential failure modes (buckling, yielding
Learning Outcomes:
NonCore:
- Identify the main applications of AI and machine learning in structural engineering and architecture - surrogate modeling, generative design, and code checking - [Familiarity]
- Apply a surrogate machine learning model to accelerate the evaluation of structural performance within a parametric design workflow [Usage]
- Evaluate the validity and reliability of an AI-assisted structural optimization result, identifying potential overfitting, lack of physical consistency [Assessment]